Application: Inheritance Lab

Application: Inheritance Lab. A-Plus Writer, would it be possible for you to complete the attached lab report for the assignment listed below? Please?

Application: Inheritance Lab

Have you noticed any similarities among you and your parents or other relatives? Even if you do not know your biological parents, you can guess some of their physical characteristics based on your own physical characteristics or phenotypes. You can do this by applying Mendelian genetics.

For your Application Assignment, complete the Inheritance Lab in which you identify your phenotypes for several physical characteristics such as the presence of dimples or a widow’s peak. Then, infer your possible genotypes, as well as your parents’ possible genotypes.

To prepare for this Application Assignment:

Consider what Mendelian genetics is and how you can determine genotypes based on phenotypes and vice versa.

Review the Inheritance Lab Background document (see attachment), focusing on the phenotypes you observe for the Inheritance Lab and how to identify genotypes associated with those phenotypes.

Review the lab instructions in the Inheritance Lab Report (see attached), focusing on the steps you must follow and the information you must complete in the report. You may complete this report by hand as you complete the lab; however, by Day 7, you submit an electronic version of this document for your Application Assignment.

NOTE: You do not need to purchase any materials to complete this lab.

The Assignment:

Complete the Inheritance Lab Report

© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.

Inheritance Lab Background Background on Mendelian Genetics When traits are the result of a single gene with a few distinct alleles, you may use the logic of Mendelian genetics to predict the genotypes of offspring. To apply Mendelian genetics, you must understand the following terms: genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, heterozygous, homozygous, and Punnett square. Here is an example of a Punnett square. In this example, we will assume that having freckles is a simple single allele example of Mendelian genetics and that the dominant allele is freckles (F) and the recessive allele is no freckles (f). A heterozygous parent with a genotype of Ff mates with a homozygous parent who has an ff genotype. This is an example:

f f F Ff Ff f ff ff

Based on what you know about Mendelian genetics, what percentage of the offspring in the Punnett square above will display freckles? You may also use Mendelian genetics to infer possible genotypes of parents based on the phenotype of a child. For example, if a child displays freckles, what are his or her possible genotypes? (Hint: There are two possible genotypes.) Based on this answer, what genotypes might the parents have? (Hint: There are more than two possible genotypes for the parents.) Continuing with the above example, imagine that you do not know your birth parents and have no siblings, but that you do have freckles. Thus, your phenotype is F, but what is your genotype? Both an FF and an Ff individual would display freckles, so your genotype could be either of these. Using Mendelian genetics, you can infer the different possible pairings of parental phenotypes that would lead to your genotypes. For instance, let’s examine the case in which you are a heterozygote for freckles and consider what possible parental crosses could have resulted in the Ff genotype. Any of the following parental crosses are possible:

FF x Ff FF x ff Ff x Ff

Does this make sense? If not, run a Punnett square on each cross. (See pages 157–158 in your course text for how to use a Punnett square. You may also practice using a Punnett square by referring to the Punnett square calculator listed in the Optional Resources section.) You can also predict which of the above crosses would be most likely by considering which of these pairings is most likely to give an Ff offspring (e.g., 25%, 50%, or 100% probability). You will use this logic by identifying several particular phenotypes and then infer your parents’ possible genotypes.

 

 

© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.

BACKGROUND ON PHENOTYPES For this lab, you will identify your phenotype for a variety of physical characteristics, and infer your possible genotypes based on the phenotype. Then you will infer possible genotypes for each of your parents. Save the Inheritance Lab Report document to your computer so you may complete an electronic version of the report. You submit this to your Instructor for your Application Assignment for this week. The following are the phenotypes you will identify in the lab report. When identifying the possible genotypes, use the letters listed below for the dominant and recessive alleles. EARLOBES Having free earlobes is a dominant trait (E); having attached earlobes is a recessive trait (e). Explanation: A free earlobe hangs below the point where the ear attaches to the head. An attached earlobe attaches directly to the side of the head.

DIMPLES Having dimples is a dominant trait (D); not having dimples is recessive (d). Explanation: Dimples are natural indentations in the face on either side of the mouth. (A person may have just one dimple on one side of the mouth.)

 

 

© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.

TONGUE ROLLING The ability to roll up the sides of the tongue is dominant (T); not having the ability to roll up the sides of the tongue is recessive (t).

 

 

 

© 2012 Laureate Education, Inc.

TOE LENGTH ON FOOT Having a second toe longer than the foot’s big toe is a dominant trait (F); having a second toe shorter than the foot’s big toe is a recessive trait (f). Explanation: The second toe in the above statement refers to the toe that is adjacent (next to) the big toe on your foot. If the second toe is longer than the big toe, you have the dominant trait; if the second toe is shorter than the big toe, you have the recessive trait.

WIDOW’S PEAK Having a distinct point in the hairline at the top of the face is a dominant trait (W); not having a distinct point in the hairline at the top of the face is a recessive trait (w).

Application: Inheritance Lab

 
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Biology Homework

Biology Homework. Read the Lab 12 procedures and watch the online Hardy-Weinberg video (https://youtu.be/xPkOAnK20kw and posted on BlackBoard), then complete this assignment prior to lab.

1.     The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem states…

 

 

 

 

2.     What are the five key assumptions that are necessary for the H-W Theorem to be valid?

 

 

3.     Write the Hardy-Weinberg equation:

 

 

4.     Dominant allele “R” has a frequency (p) of 0.45 in a particular gene pool. Calculate the following showing all your work and using the proper variables for each value (e.g. p, q, p2, q2, 2pg).

a.     The frequency of allele “r” in that same gene pool?

 

 

b.     The proportion of the population that has the genotype RR.

 

 

c.     The proportion of the population that has the genotype Rr.

 

 

d.     The proportion of the population that has the genotype rr.

 

 

5.     If 17% of a population displays the recessive trait for Disease B, what are the frequencies of the recessive allele “b” and the dominant allele “B” in the gene pool?

 

 

 

6.     You perform an experiment where you allow a large population of fruit flies to mate randomly. The parental generation had 30% homozygous recessive genotypes. The F1 generation consisted of 100 flies, 40 of which displayed the recessive trait. Calculate the expected values for each phenotype assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, then fill in the table below and use the Chi-Square test instructions document (posted online) to compare your calculated X2 value with the tabulated X2 value for a P-value of 0.05.

  # of dominant phenotype individuals # of recessive phenotype individuals
Observed value (o)    
Expected value (e)    
Deviation (o – e) = d    
d2    
d2/e    
Calculated Chi-square (X2Σd2/e  
Degrees of Freedom  
Tabulated X2 value at P=0.05

(from X2 instructions document)

 

 

a.     According to your analysis above, are the observed proportion of genotypes in the F1 generation the same, or significantly different, than those expected according to the H-W theorem?

 

 

 

b.     If you allowed your F1 generation to mate, what would you expect the frequency of the recessive allele (q) to be in the F2 generation, assuming the H-W theorem applies?

Lab 12: Population Genetics I: Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

OBJECTIVES

After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

1) Explain Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium in terms of allelic and genotypic frequencies and relate these to the expression (p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 .

2) Describe the conditions necessary to maintain Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium.

3) Use the marble model to demonstrate Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and conditions for evolution.

4) Test hypotheses concerning the effects of evolutionary change (migration, mutation, genetic drift by either bottleneck or founder effect, and natural selection) using a computer model.

 

Introduction

Charles Darwin’s unique contribution to biology was not that he “discovered evolution” but, rather, that he proposed a mechanism for evolutionary change ‑ natural selection, the differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population. In On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, Darwin described natural selection and provided abundant and convincing evidence in support of evolution, the change in populations over time. Evolution was accepted as a theory with great explanatory power supported by a large and diverse body of evidence. However, at the turn of the century, geneticists and naturalists still disagreed about the role of natural selection and the importance of small variations in natural populations. How could these variations provide a selective advantage that would result in evolutionary change? It was not until evolution and genetics became reconciled with the advent of population genetics that natural selection became widely accepted.

Ayala (1982) defines evolution as “changes in the genetic constitution of populations.” A population is defined as a group of organisms of the same species that occur in the same area and interbreed or share a common gene pool. A gene pool is all the alleles at all gene loci of all individuals in the population. The population is considered the basic unit of evolution. Populations evolve, individuals do not. Can you explain this statement in terms of the process of natural selection?

In 1908, English mathematician G. H. Hardy and German physician W. Weinberg independently developed models of population genetics that showed that the process of heredity by itself did not affect the genetic structure of a population. The Hardy‑Weinberg theorem states that the frequency of alleles in the population will remain the same regardless of the starting frequencies. Furthermore, the equilibrium genotypic frequencies will be established after one generation of random mating. This theorem is valid only if certain conditions are met:

1. The population is very large.

2. Matings are random.

3. There are no net changes in the gene pool due to mutation; that is, mutation from “A” to “a” must be equal to mutation from “a” to “A”.

4. There is no migration of individuals into and out of the population.

5. There is no selection ‑ all genotypes are equal in reproductive success.

It is estimated, for example, that before the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, more than 90% of the peppered moths were light colored, while less than 10% were dark. Under Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium, these proportions would be maintained in each generation for large, random breeding populations with no change in the mutation rate and migration rate, as long as the environment was relatively stable. The process of heredity would not change the frequency of the two forms of the moth. Later in this laboratory, you will investigate what happened to these moths as the environment changed following the Industrial Revolution.

Basically, the Hardy‑Weinberg theorem provides a baseline model in which gene frequencies do not change and evolution does not occur By testing the fundamental hypothesis of the Hardy‑Weinberg theorem, evolutionists have investigated the roles of mutation, migration, population size, nonrandom mating, and natural selection in effecting evolutionary change in natural populations. Although some populations maintain genetic equilibrium, these exceptions are intriguing to scientists.

Use of the Hardy‑Weinberg Theorem

The Hardy‑Weinberg theorem provides a mathematical formula for calculating the frequencies of alleles (e.g. “A” or “a”) and genotypes (e.g. “AA”, Aa” or “aa”) in populations. If we begin with a population with two alleles at a single gene locus ‑ a dominant allele, “A”, and a recessive allele, “a”‑ then the frequency of the dominant allele is p , and the frequency of the recessive allele is q Therefore, p + q = 1 . If the frequency of one allele, p, is known for a population, the frequency of the other allele, q, can be determined by using the formula q = 1 ‑ p .

During sexual reproduction, the frequency of each type of gamete produced is equal to the frequency of the alleles in the population. If the gametes combine at random, then the probability of randomly combining an “A” allele with another “A” allele to produce an “AA” genotype in the next generation is p x p = p2 , according to the product rule – the probability of Event 1 AND Event 2 is equal to the product of their individual probabilities. Likewise the probability of “a” combining with “a” to form “aa” is q x q = q2 The heterozygote “Aa” can be obtained two ways, with either parent providing a dominant allele and the other a recessive allele. According to the sum rule – the probability of Event 1 OR Event 2 is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities. Therefore, the probability of combining allele “A” from parent 1 and “a” from parent 2 is equal to p x q (or pq ), while the probability of the opposite (combining allele “a” from parent 1 and “A” from parent 2) is also equal to pq , therefore the sum of the two possibilities is 2pq . These genotypic frequencies can be obtained by multiplying p + q by p + q , in other words (p + q)2 The general equation then becomes

(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Hardy-Weinberg Equationp2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

To summarize:

For allele frequencies:

p = frequency of “A” allele

q = frequency of “a” allele

For genotype frequencies:

p2 = frequency of AA genotype

2pq = frequency of Aa genotype

q2 = frequency of aa genotype

Follow the steps again in this example.

1. If alternate alleles of a gene, “A” and “a”, occur at equal frequencies, p and q, then during sexual reproduction, 0.5 of all gametes will carry “A” and 0.5 will carry “a”.

2. Then p = q = 0.5.

3. Once allelic frequencies are known for a population, the genotypic makeup of the next generation can be predicted from the general equation. In this case,

p2 + 2(pq) + q2 = 1

0.52 + 2(0.5 x 0.5) + 0.52 = 1

0.25 + 0.50 + 0.25 = 1 (all genes in the population)

This represents the results of random mating as shown in Figure 12.1.

4. The genotypic frequencies in the population are specifically

p2 = frequency of AA = 0.25

2pq = frequency of Aa = 0.50

q2 = frequency of aa = 0.25

5. The allelic frequencies remain p = q = 0.5.

In actual populations the frequencies of alleles are not usually equal. For example, 4% of a population might be albinos (a recessive trait). In other words q2 = 0.04 and the frequency of the albino allele could be calculated as the square root of 0.04.

1. Albino individuals q2 = 0.04 (genotypic frequency); therefore, q = √0.04 = 0.2 (allelic frequency).

2. Since p + q = 1 the frequency of p is (1 ‑ q), or 0.8. So 4% of the population are albinos (genotypic frequency = 0.04), and 20% of the alleles in the gene pool are for albinism (allele frequency of “a” = 0.2). The other 80% of alleles are for normal pigmentation (allelic frequency of “A” = 0.8). Note: you could not determine the frequency of A by taking the square root of the frequency of all normally pigmented individuals because you cannot distinguish the heterozygote (2pq) and the homozygote (p2) for this trait. Therefore you must use the p + q = 1 equation.

3. The genotypic frequencies of the next generation now can be predicted from the general Hardy‑Weinberg theorem. First determine the results of random mating by completing Figure 12.2, filling in all the missing probabilities based on the data from above (q = 0.2, p = 0.8).

What will be the genotypic frequencies from generation to generation, provided that alleles p and remain in genetic equilibrium?

AA = Aa = aa =

The genetic equilibrium will continue indefinitely if the conditions of the Hardy‑Weinberg theorem are met. How often in nature do you think these conditions are met? Although natural populations may seldom meet all the conditions, Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium serves as a valuable model (a null hypothesis) from which we can predict/detect genetic changes in populations as a result of natural selection or other factors. This allows us to understand quantitatively and in genetic language how evolution operates at the population level.

image1.png Figure 12.1. Random mating in a population at Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium. The combination of alleles in randomly mating gametes maintains the allelic and genotypic frequency generation after generation. The gene pool of the population remains constant, and the populations do not evolve.
image2.png Figure 12.2. Random mating for a population at Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium. Complete the mating combinations for albinism and normal pigmentation.

AA = p2 =

aA = pq =

Aa = pq =

aa = q2 =

Testing Hardy‑Weinberg Equilibrium

Using a Marble Model

Materials

Box containing 100 marbles of two colors

Introduction

Working in pairs, you will test Hardy‑Weinberg equilibrium by simulating a population using colored marbles. The box of marbles represents the gene pool for the population. Each marble should be regarded as a single gamete, the two colors representing different alleles of a single gene. Each box should contain 100 marbles of the two colors in the proportions specified by the instructor. Record in the space provided below the color of the marbles and the initial frequencies for your gene pool.

A = ​(color) allelic frequency

a = (color) allelic frequency

(p + q)2 = p2 + 2(pq) + q2 = 1

(0.5 + 0.5)2 = 0.52 + 2(0.5 x 0.5) + 0.52 = 1

1 = 0.25 + 0.50 + 0.25 = 1 (all genes in the population)

1. There are 100 alleles in your box, how many diploid individuals are represented in this population?

2. What would be the color combination of the marbles needed to produce a homozygous dominant individual?

3. What would be the color combination of the marbles needed to produce a homozygous recessive individual?

4. What would be the color combination of the marbles needed to produce a heterozygous individual?

Hypothesis

State the Hardy‑Weinberg theorem in the space provided. This will be your hypothesis (it is sort of a null hypothesis…assuming no selection, etc.)

Predictions

Predict the genotypic frequencies of the population in future generations (if/then). Deductive thinking.

PART I Procedure-

1. Without looking, randomly remove two marbles from the box. These two marbles represent one diploid individual in the next generation. In the table to the right, record a tally of the diploid genotype (AA, Aa, or aa) of the individual formed from these two gametes.

2. Return the marbles to the box and shake the box to reinstate the gene pool. By replacing the marbles each time, the size of the gene pool remains constant and the probability of selecting any allele should remain equal to its frequency. This procedure is called sampling with replacement.

3. Repeat steps 1 and (select two marbles, record the genotype of the new individual, and return the marbles to the box) until you have recorded the genotypes for 50 individuals who will form the next generation of the population.

AA individuals Aa individuals aa individuals
 

 

 

PART I Results-

1. Before calculating the results of your experiment determine the expected frequencies of genotypes and alleles for the population. To do this, use the original allelic frequencies for the population provided by the instructor. (Recall that the frequency of A = p, and the frequency of a = q.) Calculate the expected genotypic frequencies using the Hardy‑Weinberg equation p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 The number of individuals expected for each genotype can be calculated by multiplying 50 (total population size) by the expected frequencies. Record these results in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Expected Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies for the Next Generation Produced by the Marble Model

Parent

Populations

EXPECTED New

Populations

Allelic

Frequency

Genotypic Number (# individuals) and Frequency (proportion) Allelic

Frequency

A

 

a AA

# =

Freq.=

 

Aa

# =

Freq.=

 

aa

# =

Freq.=

 

A a

2. Next, using the results of your experiment calculate the observed frequencies in the new population created as you removed marbles from the box. Record the number of diploid individuals for each genotype in Table 12.2and calculate the frequencies for the three genotypes (AA, Aa, aa). Add the numbers of each allele, and calculate the allelic frequencies for and a. These values are the observed frequencies in the new population. Genotypic frequencies and allelic frequencies should each equal 1.

Table 12.2 Observed Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies for the Next Generation Produced by the Marble Model.

Parent

Populations

OBSERVED New

Populations

Allelic

Frequency

Genotypic Number (# of individuals) and Frequency (proportion) Allelic

Frequency

A

 

a AA

# =

Freq.=

 

Aa

# =

Freq.=

 

aa

# =

Freq.=

 

A a

3. To compare your observed results with those expected, you can use a chi-square test of the genotype frequencies . Table 12.3 will assist in the calculation of the chi-square testFill out this table, but then use excel to perform a chi-squared test and calculate an actual p-value.

Table 12.3 Chi-Square of Results from the Marble Model

  # of AA individuals # of Aa individuals # of aa individuals
Observed value (o)      
Expected value (e)      
Deviation (o – e) = d      
d2      
d2/e      
Calculated Chi-square value (X2) = Σd2/e  

Degrees of freedom (# of possible genotypes – 1) = __________, P-value from excel chi-square test = ____________

Are your observed genotypic frequencies the same, or significantly different, than what is expected according to H-W Equilibrium? Why?

PART II Procedures-

1. Follow the same procedures as in PART I, except this time keep your eyes open as you select the marbles. Decide on one of the two colors to have a “selective advantage”, then make your selections favoring choosing that color. (You don’t need to choose them every time, but don’t choose the marbles randomly.)

2. Record your tallies for the new population below, then calculate your “observed frequencies” and record them in Table 12.4, below.

AA individuals Aa individuals Aa individuals
 

 

 

3. Disregard the fact that you did not select the marbles randomly, and use your original “expected frequencies” from Table 12.1 (according to H-W Equilibrium) to run a chi-square test on the genotype frequencies, using excel .

PART II- Results

Table 12.4 Observed Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies for the Next Generation Produced by the (non-random) Marble Model.

Parent

Populations

OBSERVED New

Populations

Allelic

Frequency

Genotypic Number (# of individuals) and Frequency (proportion) Allelic

Frequency

A

 

a AA

# =

Freq.=

 

Aa

# =

Freq.=

 

aa

# =

Freq.=

 

A a

Chi-square test p-value:

Are your observed genotypic frequencies the same, or significantly different, than what is expected according to H-W Equilibrium? Why?

Post-lab 5 Questions

(detach and turn in next week along with your abstract)

1. In your PART I newly produced generation, what proportion of your population was…

a. Homozygous dominant?

b. Homozygous recessive?

c. Heterozygous?

2. Do your results in PART I match your predictions for a population at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

3. If you continued the PART I simulation for 25 generations…

a. What would you expect to happen to the frequencies of each allele?

b. Would that population be evolving? Explain your response.

4. Consider each of the conditions for the Hardy‑Weinberg model. Does your model meet each of those conditions?

Consider what you did in PART II:

5. How did the simulation in PART II differ from your methods in PART I?

6. Which condition necessary for H-W Equilibrium was violated?

7. What did your chi-square test allow you to identify about the genotype frequencies in the new population in PART II?

8. Is the population in PART II evolving? Explain your response.

9. How could this method be useful when studying population genetics of real organisms?

10. What might be some of the difficulties you would encounter while using this in a real population genetics study?

For example, if the “A” allele has a frequency of 0.75 in a gene pool, then p = 0.75, and the frequency of “a” can be calculated as q = 0.25.

 

 

If “A” has a frequency of p = 0.75 the probability of getting an “AA” genotype is:

p2 = 0.752 = 0.5625

 

Likewise for “a”, with q = 0.25, probability of “aa” is:

q2 = 0.252 = 0.0625

 

Prob. of “Aa” or “aA” is:

2pq = 2(0.75 x 0.25) = 0.375

 

NOTE:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

0.5625+0.375+0.0625 =1

 

 

PAGE

1

Bio 112 Bignami & Olave Spring 2016

Biology Homework

 
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HSCI 460: Research in Health and Human Sciences

HSCI 460: Research in Health and Human Sciences. HSCI 460: Research in Health and Human Sciences

Assignment Three: Refining the Research Question (20 points)

Your third assignment is to begin focusing and refining your research question. You need to add and then identify the following for your question:

1. Refined research question – it should include indication of the type of subject (for example, female, aged 18 – 25 years, or measurements to be taken, etc.)

2. The independent and dependent variables for your research question (see the example in Assignment 2 for the definition of independent and dependent variables)

3. Briefly describe at least two subject or study characteristics you would control (for example, setting, timing, procedures, age range of subjects, health status of subjects, the timing of the treatments, etc. see also the example in Assignment 2 for controlled variables)

Points for Assignment Three Points Available
Refined research question

Statement of independent and dependent variables

Description of controlled variables

8

6

6

 

Total points

 

20

Resource that might be helpful as a new perspective. http://libguides.mit.edu/content.php?pid=36716&sid=270173

All researchers struggle with this step.

HSCI 460: Research in Health and Human Sciences

 
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Trophic Interaction

Trophic Interaction. ENVR 1401: Environmental Science

Assignment #2

Assignment needs to be typed

 

List everything you consumed during one day (you will need to turn in this list to me with this assignment!)—breakfast, lunch, dinner, snacks, and beverages. After creating a list of food consumed,

label each item as from a producer, a primary consumer (e.g., cow), or secondary or higher consumer

(e.g., fish). If the food item contains both producers and consumers, note both and guess approximately

how much of each it contains. From the list, determine the approximate percentage of food obtained from

producers and the approximate percentage of food obtained from consumers. Determine from which

trophic level you eat. (The lowest trophic level will be secondary.) How much support do you receive

from the first trophic level? How much support from the second trophic level? How much support from

each remaining trophic level? If you ate more producers, how would this change the percentage of the

biomass pyramid necessary to support your survival? If you ate more food from secondary consumers

(fish), how would this change the percentage of the biomass pyramid necessary to support your survival?

 

EXAMPLE: This is only a guide to help you with what you need to do for this assignment.

A sample daily diet is given below based upon an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet. I eat from the first and

second trophic levels. Using only the item source frequency, not the quantity of food consumed, 67%

(8/12) of my diet comes directly from producers and 33% (4/12) comes from primary consumers. I eat

mainly from the first trophic level. If I ate more food from producers, the percentage of the biomass

pyramid necessary to support my survival would decrease. If I ate more food from secondary consumers,

the percentage of the biomass pyramid necessary to support me would increase.

Trophic Interaction

 
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