Microspcope And Cells Lab Report.

Microscopes and Cells

 

PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT:

Students are expected to watch this video (which is also posted on Blackboard): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= – b3Eejf4rDQ

AND read pages 1 to 4 before coming to the lab to complete the experiments.

 

Print this entire lab packet and bring it to the laboratory. Please provide a FULL lab report for this experiment following the “Lab Report Guidelines”.

 

Objectives:

After completing this laboratory assignment, students will be able to:

· Identify the parts of a compound microscope.

· Properly use a compound microscope for biological studies.

· Describe the features of specific cells.

· Determine characteristics shared by all cells studied.

 

Microscopes and Lenses:

Although cells vary in size, they’re generally quite small. For instance, the diameter of a typical human red blood cell is about eight micrometers (0.008 millimeters). To give you some context, the head of a pin is about one millimeter in diameter, so about 125 red blood cells could be lined up in a row across the head of a pin. With a few exceptions, individual cells cannot be seen with the naked eye, so scientists must instead use microscopes (micro– = “small”; –scope = “to look at”) to study them. A microscope is an instrument that magnifies objects otherwise too small to be seen, producing an image in which the object appears larger. Most photographs of cells are taken using a microscope, and these pictures can also be called micrographs. From the definition above, it might sound like a microscope is just a kind of magnifying glass. In fact, magnifying glasses do qualify as microscopes; since they have just one lens, they are called simple microscopes. The fancier instruments that we typically think of as microscopes are compound microscopes, meaning they have multiple lenses. Because of the way these lenses are arranged, they can bend light to produce a much more magnified image than that of a magnifying glass.

 

In a compound microscope with two lenses, the arrangement of the lenses has an interesting consequence: the orientation of the image you see is flipped in relation to the actual object you’re examining. For example, if you were looking at a piece of newsprint with the letter “e” on it, the image you saw through the microscope would be “ə.” More complex compound microscopes may not produce an inverted image because they include an additional lens that “re-inverts” the image back to its normal state.

 

What separates a basic microscope from a powerful machine used in a research lab? Two parameters are especially important in microscopy: magnification and resolution.

· Magnification is a measure of how much larger a microscope (or set of lenses within a microscope) causes an object to appear. For instance, the light microscopes typically used in high schools and colleges magnify up to about 400 times actual size. So, something that was 1 mm wide in real life would be 400 mm wide in the microscope image.

· The resolution of a microscope or a lens is the smallest distance by which two points can be separated and still be distinguished as separate objects. The smaller this value, the higher the resolving power of the microscope and the better the clarity and detail of the image. If two bacterial cells were very close together on a slide, they might look like a single, blurry dot on a microscope with low resolving power, but could be told apart as separate on a microscope with high resolving power.

 

Both magnification and resolution are important if you want a clear picture of something very tiny. For example, if a microscope has high magnification but low resolution, all you’ll get is a bigger version of a blurry image. Different types of microscopes differ in their magnification and resolution.

 

Light Microscopes:

Most student microscopes are classified as light microscopes. In a light microscope, visible light passes through the specimen (the biological sample you are looking at) and is bent through the lens system, allowing the user to see a magnified image. A benefit of light microscopy is that it can often be performed on living cells, so it’s possible to watch cells carrying out their normal behaviors (e.g., migrating or dividing) under the microscope.

 

Student lab microscopes tend to be brightfield microscopes, meaning that visible light is passed through the sample and used to form an image directly, without any modifications. Slightly more sophisticated forms of light microscopy use optical tricks to enhance contrast, making details of cells and tissues easier to see.

 

Another type of light microscopy is fluorescence microscopy, which is used to image samples that fluoresce (absorb one wavelength of light and emit another). Light of one wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent molecules, and the light of a different wavelength that they emit is collected and used to form a picture. In most cases, the part of a cell or tissue that we want to look at isn’t naturally fluorescent, and instead must be labeled with a fluorescent dye or tag before it goes on the microscope.

 

A confocal microscope is a specialized kind of fluorescence microscope that uses a laser to excite a thin layer of the sample and collects only the emitted light coming from the target layer, producing a sharp image without interference from fluorescent molecules in the surrounding layers.

 

Electron Microscopes:

Some cutting-edge types of light microscopy (beyond the techniques we discussed above) can produce very high-resolution images. However, if you want to see something very tiny at very high resolution, you may want to use a different, tried-and-true technique: electron microscopy.

 

Electron microscopes differ from light microscopes in that they produce an image of a specimen by using a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light. Electrons have a much shorter wavelength than visible light, and this allows electron microscopes to produce higher-resolution images than standard light microscopes. Electron microscopes can be used to examine not just whole cells, but also the subcellular structures such as organelles and compartments within them.

 

One limitation, however, is that electron microscopy samples must be placed under a vacuum in electron microscopy (and typically are prepared via an extensive fixation process). This means that live cells cannot be imaged.

In the image above, you can compare how Salmonella bacteria look in a light micrograph (left) versus an image taken with an electron microscope (right). The bacteria show up as tiny purple dots in the light microscope image, whereas in the electron micrograph, you can clearly see their shape and surface texture, as well as details of the human cells they’re trying to invade.

 

There are two major types of electron microscopy. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM), a beam of electrons moves back and forth across the surface of a cell or tissue, creating a detailed image of the 3D surface. This type of microscopy was used to take the image of the Salmonella bacteria shown at right, above.

 

In transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in contrast, the sample is cut into extremely thin slices (for instance, using a diamond cutting edge) before imaging, and the electron beam passes through the slice rather than skimming over its surface. TEM is often used to obtain detailed images of the internal structures of cells.

 

Electron microscopes are significantly bulkier and more expensive than standard light microscopes, perhaps not surprisingly given the subatomic particles they have to handle!

 

(Above information was adapted from Khan Academy: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/introduction-to-cells/a/microscopy)

Please Note: Treat these microscopes with the greatest care!

 

Exercise 1: Basic Microscope Techniques

In this exercise, you will learn to use the microscope to examine a recognizable object, a slide of the letter e and crossed threads. Recall that microscopes vary, so you may have to omit steps that refer to features not available on your microscope. Practice adjusting your microscope to become proficient in locating a specimen, focusing clearly, and adjusting the light for the best contrast.

 

1. Obtain the following materials:

· Clear ruler  Blank slides  2 prepared slides: letter “e” & crossed thread

· Lens paper  Kimwipes®  Dropper bottle with distilled water

· Coverslips

 

2. Clean microscope lenses.

a. Each time you use the microscope, you should begin by cleaning the lenses. Using lens paper moistened with a drop of distilled water, wipe the ocular, objective, and condenser lenses. Wipe them again with a piece of dry lens paper.

 

3. Adjust the focus on your microscope:

a. Plug your microscope into the outlet.

b. Turn on the light. Adjust the light intensity to mid-range (if your microscope has that feature).

c. Rotate the 4X objective into position using the revolving nosepiece ring, not the objective itself.

d. Obtain the letter slide and wipe it with a Kimwipe® tissue.

i. Each time you study a prepared slide, you should first wipe it clean.

e. Place the letter slide on the stage and center it over the stage opening.

 

Please Note: Slides should be placed on and removed from the stage only when the 4X objective is in place. Removing a slide when the higher objectives are in position may scratch the lenses.

 

f. Look through the ocular and bring the letter into rough focus by slowly focusing upward using the coarse adjustments.

g. For binocular microscopes, looking through the oculars, move the oculars until you see only one image of the letter e. In this position, the oculars should be aligned with your pupils. In the margin of your lab paper, make a note of the interpupillary distance on the scale between the oculars.

h. Raise the condenser to its highest position, and fully close the iris diaphragm.

i. Looking through the ocular, slowly lower the condenser just until the graininess disappears. Slowly open the iris diaphragm just until the entire field of view is illuminated. This is the correct position for both the condenser and the iris diaphragm.

j. Rotate the 10X objective into position.

k. Look through the ocular and slowly focus upward with the coarse adjustment knob until the image is in rough focus. Sharpen the focus using the fine adjustment knob.

l. You can increase or decrease the contrast by adjusting the iris diaphragm opening.

m. Move the slide slowly to the right. In what direction does the image in the ocular move? _ Left _

n. Is the image in the ocular inverted relative to the specimen on stage? __Yes__

o. Center the specimen in the field of view; then rotate the 40X objective into position while watching from the side.

p. After the 40X objective is in place, focus using the fine adjustment knob.

q. The distance between the specimen and the objective lens is called the working distance. Is this distance greater with the 40X or the 10X objective? ___10X__

r. Compute the total magnification of the specimen being viewed. To do so, multiply the magnification of the ocular lens by that of the objective lens.

i. What is the total magnification of the letter as the microscope is now set? _400x__

 

Analysis Question 1

What would be the total magnification if the ocular was 20X and the objective was 100X (oil immersion)?

This is the magnification achieved by the best light microscopes.

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Total Magnification of a microscope can be calculated by multiplying the magnification of ocular and objective. So, 20 × 100 = 2000X

Therefore the total magnification will be 2000X.

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4. Measure the diameter of the field of view. Once you determined the size of the field of view for any combination of ocular and objective lenses, you can determine the size of any structure within that field. a. Rotate the 4X objective into position and remove the letter slide.

b. Place a clear ruler on the stage, and focus on its edge.

c. The distance between two lines on the ruler is 1 mm. What is the diameter (mm) of the field of view?

d. Convert this measurement to micrometers, a more commonly used unit of measurement in microscopy (1 mm=1,000 µm).

e. Measure the diameter for the field of view for the 10X and 40X objectives, and enter all three in the spaces below to be used for future reference.

 

4X = _ 4000Nm______ 10=__ 1000Nm_______ 40=__ 500Nm________

 

Analysis Question 2

What is the relationship between the size of the field of view and magnification?

As the magnification increases the field of view decreases (The field of view specifies how much of a specimen is visble in the eyepiece. Field of view and magnification are inversely related: the higher the magnification, the narrower the field of view, and vice-versa).

 

5. Determine spatial relationships. The depth of field is the thickness of the specimen that may be seen in focus at one time. Because the depth of focus is very short in the compound microscope, focus up and down to clearly view all the planes of a specimen.

a. Rotate the 4X objective into position and remove the ruler. Obtain the slide of crossed threads, wipe it with a Kim wipe, and place the slide on the stage. Center the slide so that the region where the two threads cross is in the center of the stage opening.

b. Focus on the region where the threads cross. Are both threads in focus at the same time? Yes

c. Rotate the 10X objective into position and focus on the cross. Are both threads in focus at the same time? Yes

 

Analysis Question 3

Does the 4X or the 10X objective have a shorter depth of field?

The 10X have a shorter depth of field because is zooms in more than the 4X that gives a larger depth of field.

 

d. Focus upward (move the stage up) with the coarse adjustment until both threads are just out of focus. Slowly focus down using the fine adjustment. Which thread comes into focus first? Is this thread lying under or over the other thread? Blue Over Red

e. Rotate the 40X objective into position and slowly focus up and down, using the fine adjustment only. Does the 10X or the 40X objective have a shorter depth of field? 40X has the shorter depth

 

 

Exercise 2: Viewing Prepared Slides

1. Using the Basic Microscope Techniques from Exercise 1, view a prepared slide of an Amoeba and one of a Paramecium.

a. Draw your field of view of each objective for each slide.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. View a prepared slide of a cheek cell.

a. View the cells using the 4X and 40X objectives.

b. Draw your field of view for the 4X and 40X objectives.

c. Can you identify any organelles? If so, which ones? What is the function of the identified organelle(s)?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exercise 3: Preparing a Slide of Elodea 1. Prepare a wet mount.

a. Remove a leaf of Elodea.

b. Place the leaf onto a clean slide.

c. Add a drop of water to the leaf.

d. Place a coverslip over the leaf.

2. View the cells using the 4X and 40X objectives.

3. Draw your field of view for the 4X and 40X objectives.

4. Can you identify any organelles? If so, which ones? What is the function of the identified organelle(s)?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exercise 4: Proper Storage of the Microscope 1. Rotate the 4X objective into position.

2. Remove the slide from the stage.

3. Lower the stage all the way down.

4. Unplug the cord and wrap it around the base of the microscope.

5. Replace the dust cover.

6. Return the microscope to the cabinet using two hands; one hand should hold the arm, and the other should support the base.

7. These steps should be following every time you store the microscope.

8. Dispose of the Elodea slide according to the instructor’s directions.

9. Return all other materials to their original location.

 

Note: The results section of the lab report should include images from your field of view as well as answers to the questions asked throughout the exercises and the analysis questions.

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Microspcope And Cells Lab Report

 

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Compensation Plan. Assignment: Compensation Plan Outline

 

Using the same company you researched in Assignment 1, evaluate the company’s compensation plan to determine how it could be improved.

Write a six to eight (6-8) page paper in which you:

• Evaluate the existing compensation plan to determine if it is the most appropriate for your company. Explain your rationale.
• Determine the most beneficial ratio of internally consistent and market consistent compensations systems for the company you selected.
• EvaluAssignment: Compensation Plan Outline

   

  Using the same company you researched in Assignment 1, evaluate the company’s compensation plan to determine how it could be improved.

  Write a six to eight (6-8) page paper in which you:

  • Evaluate the existing compensation plan to determine if it is the most appropriate for your company. Explain your rationale.
  • Determine the most beneficial ratio of internally consistent and market consistent compensations systems for the company you selected.
  • Evaluate the current pay structure used by your company and assess the recognition of employee contributions.
  • Make two (2) recommendations for improving the effectiveness of the discretionary benefits provided by the company you selected.
  • Evaluate the types of employer-sponsored retirement plans and health insurance programs provided by the company you selected and compare them to that company’s major competitors.
  • Use at least three (3) quality references. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.

  Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:

  • Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
  • Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required page length.Running head: COMPENSATION PRACTICE 1

    COMPENSATION PRACTICE 9

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Compensation Practice

    Name

    Instructor

    Course Title

    Date

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Abstract

    Compensation practices have been used by the Apple Company, which is a multinational company based in America with its headquarters located in Cupertino. The Apple Company is known for developing, designing and selling computer software such as iTunes, iOS operating systems, among other consumer electronics. Their popular products in the Mac line are computers, iPads, iPhones, and iPods. The company is ranked number three in the phone making category, after Nokia and Samsung. The company has penetrated in more than 14 countries making it, by market capitalization, one of the largest publicly traded global companies.

    Apple Company has an objective for employees on the platform of compensation. The company aims at attracting and retaining their executives since they ensure succeeds in the market competition. The company strives to achieve the objective on the company’s stakeholders. Compensation committee in the company determines the compensation for the executives of the company as well as overseeing the compensation program. Executive compensation strategy has been the greatest tool in the achievements of the company. Another compensation strategy used by Apple Company is performance-based cash incentive. Apple’s compensation committee determines the compensation plans of its employees and executives.

    The company employs competitive strategies in finding out the compensation effects on the senior officials, employees, and stakeholders. There are three major challenges facing Apple Company, as well as attracting new employees, who have strong talents, controlling the labor costs and multinational operations challenge. Apple Company has employed compensation strategies that conform to compensation laws used globally and at the local country it operates. The traditional base for pay focuses on giving merits on seniority and therefore becomes effective since it facilitates a common ground to control compensation matters.

    Compensation Strategy of Apple Company

    For any company, they need to focus on the efficiency of operations since they pay their employees in return for the work done (O’Grady, 2009, p. 67). To avoid employee frustrations and bond frictions, a company and employees need to have a broad agreement on binding documents about the compensation package. Therefore, in that perspective, Apple Company has an objective for employees on the platform of compensation. The company aims at attracting and retaining their executives since they ensure succeeds in the market competition. The company strives to achieve the objective on the business’s stakeholders. Compensation committee in the business determines the compensation for the executives of the company as well as overseeing the compensation program. Through a good compensation program, the company believes that financial performance can improve in the challenging macroeconomic environment if compensation management is effective.

    Executive compensation strategy has been the greatest tool to the achievements of the company. The strategy involves rewards such as base salaries, yearly bonuses out of the performance and long-term equity rewards. Notably, the strategy has ensured retention of performing executive leaders, as well as attracting the most outstanding executive team. Besides that, the strategy aims at determining supplementary rewards that stimulate the performance of the employees. The company rewards the mentioned employees with long-term equity rewards after every two years. The company does not stress so much on the overall monetary compensation but on equity rewards, thus, shaping its annual performance-based cash bonus from the named executive employee (“Apple, Inc. Executive Salaries & Other Compensation | Salary.com,” n.d.).

    Another compensation strategy used by Apple Company is performance-based cash incentive. The strategy has help Apple Company in attaining its goals, objectives as well as attaining better financial performance as compared with its competitors.

    How the Compensation Practice Has Determined Positive/Negative Impacts to the Apple Company and Its Stakeholders

    One way of indicating fair and equal plan effectiveness is through compensation impact. Employees show that they are satisfied with compensation programs through their behavior, as well as presenting a positive work attitude. Thus, the company benefits from the employee’s actions of higher performance and improved effectiveness. Apple Company has a compensation committee that determines the compensation plans of its employees and executives. The compensation plans are reviewed every year. The company employs competitive strategies in finding out the compensation effects on the senior officials, employees, and stakeholders. Besides this, the company has employed different governance techniques as well as charters so as to determine compensation impact. Occasionally, the committee reviews the policy on compensation to consider if it is still appropriate for use. Moreover, the committee approves the incentive, benefits policy, and the entire compensation policy of any employee, but more so, that of senior executive officers (“AAPL Apple, Inc. Executive Compensation,” n.d.).

    Also, compensation impact is assessed by the committee through annual performance evaluation. The same is also done by the governing board of Apple Company. Through this, the efforts of hard working executive members are acknowledged, as well as the individuals that partake in the financially based impact of the company.

     

     

    Challenges Related to Compensation Strategy Used by Apple Company

    There are three major challenges facing Apple Company. To begin with is retaining, as well as attracting new employees who have strong talents. Due to high competition in the labor market for employees, the Apple’s compensation committee must recognize that and factor in the increasing competitive salaries and talented employees. The competition has raised wars in the multinational companies dealing with computer and software technologies. Therefore, Apple’s compensation committee is expected to aim higher and come up with a good enticing compensation plan for qualified and talented employees. Again, the compensation committee should aim at enhancing employee retention by developing a more complicated compensation strategy (“Apple, Inc. Executive Salaries & Other Compensation | Salary.com,” n.d.).

    Another challenge the Apple Company is facing is controlling the labor costs. The company’s budget has constraints in the countries that have constricted economies; meanwhile, war arises among information technology companies. Thus, the labor costs go up than the amount paid to the employees. As a result, the creation of effective compensation strategies becomes challenging.

    Finally, Apple Company is facing a multinational operations challenge. Apple being a multinational company operating in different countries, it should, therefore, have strategies that balance expectations and employees’ needs in the various countries. Again the compensation strategies chosen should conform to the local customs and laws against global corporate policies. Sometimes adjusting this has been a significant problem for Apple Company.

     

     

    How Laws, Market Factors and Labor Unions Impact Compensation Practices of Apple

    Apple Company has employed compensation strategies that conform to compensation laws used globally and at the local country it operates. In this case, compensation laws and regulations become critical to Apple Company as it can undermine or improve compensation strategies used. Therefore, any established compensation strategy must conform to the law. Again, Apple should agree with the country’s compulsory leave to employees, bonuses, working hours, and minimum salaries for both permanent and temporary employees (“Apple, Inc. Executive Salaries & Other Compensation | Salary.com,” n.d.).

    Again, the compensation strategies should also consider the workers are working overtime. According to the law established, then all workers working overtime should be compensated effectively. For instance, the National Labor Relations Act states that private employees must be protected against the unfair labor practices of employers. Federal Labor Law is formed to regulate unions, employers, as well as employee relations. Labor unions have a greater impact on compensation since they have employees’ bargaining power. Therefore, they can directly affect employees’ wages, salaries, and total compensations. Through effective labor unions, employees can get the best compensation for the work done.

    The market factors have impacted compensation strategies of Apple Company. Due to increasing competition in the information technology market, Apple Company must compete favorably by setting aside some finances for compensation. By doing so, evaluation reports are given by the compensation committee every year which says that the employee performance is increasing since they are motivated.

     

    Effectiveness of Traditional Base for Pay approach

    According to Need (2006), compensation strategy aims at motivating, retaining and attracting the most talented employees to the Apple Company. To ensure consistent financial success for the company, choices on compensation strategy must be made right. A traditional pay approach is perceived to be consistent and fair. The same approach can produce either productive or non-productive results. The truth of the matter is, with merit pay calls for binding to the ongoing employee training that can result in high costs.

    The traditional base for pay focuses on giving merits on seniority and therefore becomes effective since it facilitates a common ground to control compensation matters. The approach provides a company with good criteria based on compensation evaluation. Reports should be drawn to show whether employees are rewarded more than necessary. The approach also serves as an important assessment tool on the company’s internal pay equity. Since all jobs in practice are based on a single system, it enables the company to compare what employees are getting across the board. More on that, the approach facilitates company market testing on the competitiveness of the pay scale. Again the approach allows all jobs to be scored using methods equitable to the other practices (“AAPL Apple, Inc. Executive Compensation,” n.d.). Thus making the approach quite objective and again makes the paying system dependable as well as consistent. Hence employees won’t see compensation program as arbitrary.

    Unlike other compensation approaches, such as incentive-based and person-focused, traditional base for pay may have some shortcomings. The approach emphasizes an upward career orientation, and senior executives continue getting the compensation. It also emphasizes on bureaucracy as well as the hierarchy in an organization. Finally, this approach fails to accurately compensate for the performance of talented employees.

    In summary of the above discussion, Apple Company’s compensation strategy is not just to build a strong competitive edge, but supports human resource processes and helps the company in becoming highly efficient in these processes and leading in the information technology industry. The strategy has managed to attract top talents from global job markets to the company; therefore, retaining the talents for the best outcome of the company.

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    References

    AAPL Apple, Inc. Executive Compensation. (n.d.). Retrieved on October 29, 2016, from http://insiders.morningstar.com/trading/executive-compensation.action?t=AAPL

    Apple, Inc. Executive Salaries & Other Compensation | Salary.com. (n.d.). Retrieved on

    October 29, 2016, from http://www1.salary.com/APPLE-INC-Executive-Salaries.html

    Need, W. C. D. H. P. (2006). Human resource management: Gaining a competitive advantage.

    O’Grady, J. D. (2009). Apple, Inc. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

  ate the current pay structure used by your company and assess the recognition of employee contributions.

• Make two (2) recommendations for improving the effectiveness of the discretionary benefits provided by the company you selected.
• Evaluate the types of employer-sponsored retirement plans and health insurance programs provided by the company you selected and compare them to that company’s major competitors.
• Use at least three (3) quality references. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.

Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:

• Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
• Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required page length.

Compensation Plan

 

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