Monohybrid crosses. How to Proceed

• Read through the introductory materials below.
• Open the Unit 6 Experiment Answer Sheet and complete the following Experiment exercises this unit:
  • Experiment 6 Exercise 1 – Monohybrid crosses (~45 min)
  • Experiment 6 Exercise 2 – Dihybrid crosses (~30 min)
  • Experiment 6 Exercise 3 – Inheritance of Human Traits (~30 min)
• Save your completed Unit 6 Experiment Answer Sheet and submit it no later than Sunday midnight (CT).

Monhybrid and Dihybrid Crosses – Introduction

Mendel crossed true-breeding pea plants in order to develop and understanding of how traits are inherited. True-breeding means that if a plant was crossed with itself, it always generated offspring that looked like the parent. Although Mendel didn’t know this at the time, it meant that the parent plant was homozygous or had two copies of the same allele that controlled the appearance of the trait.

Mendel noticed that when he crossed two true-breeding plants exhibiting different versions of a trait (e.g., green and yellow); the offspring (F1) always looked like only one of the parent plants. We know now that the F1 individuals looked like the parent that carried the dominant trait. But what surprised Mendel, was that when he crossed the F1 individuals with each other, the F2 offspring exhibited BOTH traits! Based on this observation, he concluded that the F1 individuals were hybrids, meaning they carried both alleles for a given trait. Only the dominant trait was expressed in the F1 individuals and the recessive trait, although present, was masked.

A monohybrid cross is when you are interested in crossing individuals that vary in only a single trait (e.g., flower color, seed color, stem length). In a dihybrid cross, we are crossing individuals that differ at two traits (e.g., flower color and seed color, flower color and stem length). Obviously, the more traits that vary, the more complex the crosses become!

By examining the distribution of the various traits obtained following different types of crosses, Mendel was able to describe the general pattern of genetic inheritance. Be sure to review the online lecture this unit on Genetics and pp 146-153 in your book before starting these first two exercises.

We will be using the following website for the first exercise. Be sure that you can access it and use it before beginning:

Glencoe-McGraw Hill. No date. Punnett Squares
http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078759864/383934/BL_05.html (Links to an external site.)

You will need to complete the Tables and answer the questions in the Unit 6 Experiment Answer Sheet for Exercises 1 and 2.

Inheritance of Human Traits – Introduction

Some human traits are controlled by a single gene that has only two alternative alleles. If a characteristic is determined by the dominant allele, one or both parents express that trait and many of the children will as well. Dominant characteristics will most likely be present in every generation, since the expression of these traits requires only one of the dominant alleles in order to be expressed. If the characteristic is determined by the recessive allele, then neither parent may express the trait nor few of the children. This is because two copies of the recessive allele must be present in order for the recessive trait to be expressed. If a trait is X-linked recessive; meaning the gene for the trait is found on the X chromosome, it will be expressed primarily in males.

The application of human genotypes in medicine and genetic counseling is becoming more and more necessary as we discover more about the human genome. Despite our increasing ability to decipher the chromosomes and their genes, an accurate family history remains one of the best sources of information concerning the individual. In this exercise you will determine your genotype for certain characteristics that are controlled by a single gene with two alleles based on your phenotype. We will not be looking at any X-linked traits in this exercise.

Use the information about the traits of interest in the Unit 6 Experiment Answer Sheet to answer the questions found there.

WEEK 6 EXPERIMENT ANSWER SHEET Please submit to the Week 6 Experiment dropbox no later than Sunday midnight.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES FOR WEEK 6 EXPERIMENT ASSIGNMENT

· Experiment 6 Exercise 1 – Monhybrid Crosses

· Experiment 6 Exercise 2 – Dihybrid Cross

· Experiment 6 Exercise 3 – Inheritance of Human Traits

Experiment 6 Exercise 1: Monohybrid Crosses

You will be conducting monohybrid crosses using fruit flies. Open in the following website:

Glencoe-McGraw Hill. No date. Punnett Squares http://glencoe.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0078759864/383934/BL_05.html

Procedure

A. Open the above website and click on the VCR to listen to the introduction. Close the window when done.

B. Click on the Lab Notebook on the lab bench. A breeding scenario will be presented to you that you will need to carry out. Here are the possible phenotypes and genotypes you will using:

a. Normal wings (LL or Ll) or vestigial wings (ll)

b. Gray body (GG or Gg) or black body (gg)

C. Enter the Scenario number in Table 1 below.

D. Based on the Scenario, use the down arrows beneath the Parent 1 and Parent 2 boxes to select the appropriate parents. Look carefully at the flies so that you know which ones to select.

E. Before proceeding, click on the Check Parents button. If necessary, make corrections. If you are correct, the maternal and paternal alleles will be added to the Punnett Square.

F. Next, drag the correct allele combinations and the corresponding fly types to the boxes in the Punnett Square.

G. When you are done, click on Check Offspring. If necessary, make corrections.

H. Record your data in Table 1 below. An example has been given, but note that the example is not using the genotypes and phenotypes used in this exercise.

I. Click on Reset. Repeat steps B – H four more times for a total of five crosses. If a scenario is presented that has already been completed, click Reset again. DO NOT REPEAT a given scenario!

Note that the scenario number you need to record in the Table below is the number associated with the specific scenario you completed.

Table 1. Results of crosses.

Questions

1. Which type of cross gave you the greatest number of genotypes? Was the number of phenotypes the same as the number of genotypes or different? If different, why (2 pts)?

2. Can the genotype for a gray-bodied fly be determined? If so, how? (3 pts)?

Experiment 6 Exercise 2: Dihybrid Cross

We will continue to use flies for our crosses, but this time we will examine the inheritance of TWO different traits: body color (gray or black) and wing type (long or vestigial). As with our first crosses, the gray body color is dominant (GG or Gg) over the black body color (gg). And the long wing type is dominant (LL or Ll) over vestigial (ll). Be sure you have reviewed our online Genetics lecture and this week’s reading before proceeding. An example of a dihybrid cross is shown on p 150 in your book.

Recall our flies from the previous exercise. We have the following traits:

· Gray body (GG or Gg) is dominant over black body (gg)

· Long wings (LL or Li) is dominant over vestigial wings (ll)

We will cross a gray bodied fly with long wings which has the genotype GGLl with a gray bodied fly with long wings with a genotype of GgLl . Note that even though the phenotypes are the same, the genotypes of the two parents are different.

Identify the four possible gametes produced by these two individuals. Note that each gamete must consist of two alleles (G or g and L or l):

Parent 1 Parent 2

GGLl GgLl

Parent 1 (GGLl) Gametes: _______ ______ _______ _______ (1 pts)

Parent 2 (GgLl) Gametes: _______ ______ _______ _______ (1 pts)

Create a Punnett square to show the outcome of a cross between these two individuals (GGLl and GgLl) using the gametes you identified above (3 pts).

Questions

1. What are the possible F1 genotypes (these must now have four alleles) and their percentages (4 pts)?

2. Recall that GG and Gg individuals are gray bodied, while gg individuals are black bodied and that LL and Li individuals have long wings, while ll individuals have vestigial wings. What are the phenotypes of the resulting offspring and what are the percentages of these phenotypes (2 pts)?

Experiment 6 Exercise 3: Inheritance of Human Traits

Read over the Inheritance of Human Traits Introduction under the Week 6 Experiment link in our course before beginning.

Procedure

A. For each of the heritable traits describe below, determine which form you have (dominant form or recessive form). This is your phenotype.

B. Record your phenotype information in Table 2 below. Then, enter the possible genotype(s) you have based on your phenotype.

C. Answer the questions found following Table 2 below.

Description of Heritable Traits

Trait	Possible Alleles	Dominant Form	Recessive Form	Examples
Ear lobes	E or e	Detached (Free)	Attached
Hairline	W or w	Widows peak	Straight	Widow’s peak Straight
Tongue rolling	T or t	Able to roll	Unable to roll
Hand folding	R or r	Right thumb on top	Left thumb on top
Chin	C or c	Cleft chin	No cleft chin
Tongue folding	F or f	Can fold tongue backwards	Cannot fold tongue backwards
Thumb	H or h	Straight thumb (cannot bend backwards)	Hitchhiker’s thumb (can bend it backwards)
Little Finger	B or b	Bent inwards	Straight
Mid-digital hair	M or m	Hair on fingers	No hair on fingers

An example is shown as to what should be entered in RED. Please correct the entry for “Ear lobes” based on your personal data. For the Genotypes, please use the letters provided above (8 pts).

Table 2. Your phenotypes and genotypes.

Questions

1.  Which traits did you have that were dominant (1 pts)?

2.  Which traits did you have that were recessive (1 pts)?

3. What does it mean to be homozygous for a trait? Cite source(s) used (1 pts).

4.  What does it mean to be heterozygous for a trait? Cite source(s) used (1 pts).

5.  Define genotype and phenotype? Cite source(s) used (1 pts).

6.  Which traits do you know for sure that you were homozygous (1 pts)?

Week 6 Experiment Grading Rubric

Monohybrid crosses

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Nutrition. Create a PowerPoint presentation of no more than 15 slides that reflect your understanding of the three macronutrients discussed in this module: Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins. Be creative!
Each slide should include information about each macronutrient.

• Definition of the macronutrient inclusive of its      function and structure
• Where they are digested and absorbed
• Types and their purpose
• Special characteristics and function
• Clinical applications as they relate to health and      diets

Use APA Editorial Format for citations and references used other than the textbook.

Macronutrients – Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins

Macronutrients

In this module nutrients are introduced with a discussion about how they work in the body. There are six classes of nutrients:

• Energy yielding macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids      or Fats, and Proteins
• Non-energy yielding micronutrients: Vitamins (water soluble      and fat soluble) and Minerals (macrominerals and microminerals) and Water

In this module the focus will be on energy yielding macronutrients. In the next module the non-energy micronutrients are discussed.

Let’s start with an overview by viewing the Gastrointestinal Tract in Action http://www.dnatube.com/video/1104/Gastrointestinal-tract-in-action and you may find the following CDC Nutrition for Everyone website helpful http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/index.html

Carbohydrates: Structure and Sources

A carbohydrate is an organic compound (a substance that contains carbon bonded to hydrogen) that provides energy. Chemically, all carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the same proportion as water (H2O). A carbohydrate is measured in calories or “kilocalories.”

A kilocalorie (C) is a unit of energy. Note the capital C means these are kilocalories and not calories. Carbohydrates provide 4 Calories/gram and are an immediate source of energy for the body. For example, to find the number of carbohydrate kilocalories, find the amount of carbohydrates per serving and multiply this number by four to get the amount of carbohydrate kilocalories. Example: 20g carbohydrates x 4 = 80 kilocalories of carbohydrates. So keep this in mind when teaching clients.

Carbohydrates include starches, fiber, and sugars (glucose). Carbohydrates can be found in rice, pasta, cereals, starchy vegetables (corn, potatoes, green beans) and bread. Fiber-rich carbohydrates include berries, kidney beans, and broccoli. Carbohydrates with a large amount of sugars are baked goods, cookies, cakes, soda, syrups, and honey. You can think of carbohydrates as anything with “white” ingredients (white flour, white sugar). Fruits are also considered carbohydrates with sugar as well as alcohol. This is helpful to remember when conducting client teaching. You help them to distinguish between high calorie, high starch, and high sugar carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates: Role in the Body and Health Effects

The number one role carbohydrates play is to supply energy (4 C/gram). Carbohydrates are specifically important to neurologic function (brain) and physical exercise. Also, carbohydrates save protein use in the body by using carbohydrates for energy rather than growth and maintenance of body tissues and prevent ketosis. Growth and maintenance of body tissues is best done by proteins. Carbohydrates provide fiber from whole grains. Fiber reduces the risk of obesity, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and high cholesterol. Fiber is needed to prevent constipation which can lead to hemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders such as diverticulosis and colon cancer. Our bodies need 45-65% carbohydrate intake of our total energy intake (the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range or AMDR). Adequate Intake of fiber is 25 grams per day for women and 38g for men.

An important point for nurses to remember about carbohydrates is that a low carbohydrate high protein diet can lead to keto-acidosis and damage to the heart, liver, and kidneys because the body will break down proteins (and muscle) if there is not enough glucose in the body for energy. Another important point is that the liver converts all molecules to glucose. So for those diabetic clients on oral anti-diabetic medications, always consider liver function. Hypoglycemia is another disease process to recognize concerning carbohydrates. Lastly, lactose intolerance is considered when discussing carbohydrates because dairy products contain lactose, a sugar and form of carbohydrates.

Lipids: Structure and Sources

A lipid is also an organic compound that provides an important energy source during rest and low intensity exercise. Chemically all fats contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen much less proportionately to water. A lipid also contains phospholipids, phosphorus, and occasionally nitrogen. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Lipids are insoluble in water. Think of a lipid when making a salad dressing; the oil or fat stays on top of the water.

Lipids provide 9 Calories/gram and are a later source of energy for the body after carbohydrate calories have been used. Lipids contain the most concentrated amount of energy for the body. To find the number of lipid kilocalories, find the amount of fats per serving and multiply this number by nine to get the amount of fat kilocalories. For example, 20g fat x 9 = 180 kilocalories of fats.

Food sources include: oils, shortening, butter, margarine, mayonnaise, salad dressings, table cream, and sour cream. Triglycerides are the most common form of fats found in foods and contain fatty acids. Some fatty acids increase the risk of chronic disease and some fatty acids prevent disease and protect our health. Phospholipids contain phosphate and are found in only a few foods. Cholesterol is an example of a phospholipid. Cholesterol is found in any animal product. If it comes from an animal and has fat, it is cholesterol. Meat, eggs, dairy, and eggs are all examples of foods that contain cholesterol.

Lipids: Role in the Body and Health Effects

Lipids carry important fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They also provide a sense of fullness and satisfaction since they take longer to digest. There are three types of triglycerides and are important to distinguish because of their health effects. Saturated fatty acids (coconut oil, butter, cheese, whole milk, cream, lard, and beef fat) can cause high cholesterol, heart disease, and atherosclerosis, and contribute to obesity since fat is stored in adipose tissue. But Mono and Poly unsaturated fats such as olive oil, nuts, canola oil, corn, and safflower oils help prevent high cholesterol. Therefore, animal fats are saturated and contribute to high cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, while plant fats are good and help lower the risk of disease. Also, saturated fats are solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. This is an important point when teaching clients about fat in the diet. Essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be consumed in the diet (linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid).

There is one exception to the saturated fat classification, coconut oil. In years past, coconut oil was viewed as an artery clogging fat and placed in the same category as animal fat. When reexamined by experts this medium chain fatty acid is now seen as a heart healthy fat that fights disease. This fat is not stored in the body as adipose tissue, but rather metabolized by the liver immediately and used as energy. For this reason, experts say it speeds up metabolism and promotes weight loss. This beneficial oil is involved in research around the globe for medical conditions such as Alzheimer’s, Diabetes Mellitus Types I and II, Coronary Artery Disease, and numerous skin disorders.

An important point to know about lipids is to be aware of what cholesterol numbers mean. See http://www.cdc.gov/cholesterol/ldl_hdl.htm and review the National Lipid Association recommendations for patient-centered management of dyslipidemia: Part 1 – executive summary http://www.lipidjournal.com/article/S1933-2874(14)00274-8/fulltext#sec1.1

Proteins: Structure and Sources

A protein is also an organic compound that supports tissue growth, repair, and maintenance. Chemically all proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and differ from carbs and lipids in that they contain nitrogen. Proteins contain amino acids. The body will break down food proteins into amino acids and then rebuild the amino acids to build protein for the body, such as in the muscles and blood. Essential amino acids are only obtained from food, the body cannot make them. Non-essential amino acids are made by the body and do not need to be consumed in the diet. Proteins provide 4 Calories/gram for energy.

Food sources of proteins include: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, yogurt, cheese, dried beans and peas, and nuts and nut butters. A small amount of protein can sometimes be found in whole grains and vegetables.
Proteins: Role in the Body and Health Effects

Proteins are essential for tissue growth, repair, and maintenance. A diet with the appropriate amount of protein promotes healing in any plan of care. If clients are not consuming enough carbohydrates and lipids, the body will use protein as an energy source. This can lead to problems such as poor healing, ketoacidosis, and muscle damage to include heart, kidneys, and liver. Protein can be used for energy in times of low carb intake and/or starvation. The body will break down protein for essential glucose to provide energy to the brain. Proteins have so many functions it is impossible to discuss them all. Here are the other functions to pay attention to in your readings: enzymes and hormones, maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, building a strong immune system, neurotransmission, and the transport and storage of other nutrients. Also the effects of consuming too much protein is not what you might think given many Americans think high protein diets are essential to weight loss and do not realize the health effects such as high cholesterol, bone loss, and kidney disease.

Note that according to the Institute of Medicine, a balanced diet will consist of between 20 to 35 percent calories from fat, 10 to 35 percent from protein and 45 to 65 percent from carbohydrates. Aim for 30 percent, 20 percent and 50 percent of your calories from fat, protein and carbohydrates, respectively.

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Create a PowerPoint presentation of no more than 15 slides that reflect your understanding of the three macronutrients discussed in this module: Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins. Be creative!  Each slide should include information about each macronutrient.

· Definition of the macronutrient inclusive of its function and structure

· Where they are digested and absorbed

· Types and their purpose

· Special characteristics and function

· Clinical applications as they relate to health and diets

Use APA Editorial Format for citations and references used other than the textbook.

Macronutrients – Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins

Macronutrients

In this module nutrients are introduced with a discussion about how they work in the body. There are six classes of nutrients:

· Energy yielding macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids or Fats, and Proteins

· Non-energy yielding micronutrients: Vitamins (water soluble and fat soluble) and Minerals (macrominerals and microminerals) and Water

In this module the focus will be on energy yielding macronutrients. In the next module the non-energy micronutrients are discussed.

Let’s start with an overview by viewing the Gastrointestinal Tract in Action http://www.dnatube.com/video/1104/Gastrointestinal-tract-in-action and you may find the following CDC Nutrition for Everyone website helpful http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/index.html

Carbohydrates: Structure and Sources

A carbohydrate is an organic compound (a substance that contains carbon bonded to hydrogen) that provides energy. Chemically, all carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the same proportion as water (H2O). A carbohydrate is measured in calories or “kilocalories.”

A kilocalorie (C) is a unit of energy. Note the capital C means these are kilocalories and not calories. Carbohydrates provide 4 Calories/gram and are an immediate source of energy for the body. For example, to find the number of carbohydrate kilocalories, find the amount of carbohydrates per serving and multiply this number by four to get the amount of carbohydrate kilocalories. Example: 20g carbohydrates x 4 = 80 kilocalories of carbohydrates. So keep this in mind when teaching clients.

Carbohydrates include starches, fiber, and sugars (glucose). Carbohydrates can be found in rice, pasta, cereals, starchy vegetables (corn, potatoes, green beans) and bread. Fiber-rich carbohydrates include berries, kidney beans, and broccoli. Carbohydrates with a large amount of sugars are baked goods, cookies, cakes, soda, syrups, and honey. You can think of carbohydrates as anything with “white” ingredients (white flour, white sugar). Fruits are also considered carbohydrates with sugar as well as alcohol. This is helpful to remember when conducting client teaching. You help them to distinguish between high calorie, high starch, and high sugar carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates: Role in the Body and Health Effects

The number one role carbohydrates play is to supply energy (4 C/gram). Carbohydrates are specifically important to neurologic function (brain) and physical exercise. Also, carbohydrates save protein use in the body by using carbohydrates for energy rather than growth and maintenance of body tissues and prevent ketosis. Growth and maintenance of body tissues is best done by proteins. Carbohydrates provide fiber from whole grains. Fiber reduces the risk of obesity, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and high cholesterol. Fiber is needed to prevent constipation which can lead to hemorrhoids, and gastrointestinal disorders such as diverticulosis and colon cancer. Our bodies need 45-65% carbohydrate intake of our total energy intake (the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range or AMDR). Adequate Intake of fiber is 25 grams per day for women and 38g for men.

An important point for nurses to remember about carbohydrates is that a low carbohydrate high protein diet can lead to keto-acidosis and damage to the heart, liver, and kidneys because the body will break down proteins (and muscle) if there is not enough glucose in the body for energy. Another important point is that the liver converts all molecules to glucose. So for those diabetic clients on oral anti-diabetic medications, always consider liver function. Hypoglycemia is another disease process to recognize concerning carbohydrates. Lastly, lactose intolerance is considered when discussing carbohydrates because dairy products contain lactose, a sugar and form of carbohydrates.

Lipids: Structure and Sources

A lipid is also an organic compound that provides an important energy source during rest and low intensity exercise. Chemically all fats contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen much less proportionately to water. A lipid also contains phospholipids, phosphorus, and occasionally nitrogen. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Lipids are insoluble in water. Think of a lipid when making a salad dressing; the oil or fat stays on top of the water.

Lipids provide 9 Calories/gram and are a later source of energy for the body after carbohydrate calories have been used. Lipids contain the most concentrated amount of energy for the body. To find the number of lipid kilocalories, find the amount of fats per serving and multiply this number by nine to get the amount of fat kilocalories. For example, 20g fat x 9 = 180 kilocalories of fats.

Food sources include: oils, shortening, butter, margarine, mayonnaise, salad dressings, table cream, and sour cream. Triglycerides are the most common form of fats found in foods and contain fatty acids. Some fatty acids increase the risk of chronic disease and some fatty acids prevent disease and protect our health. Phospholipids contain phosphate and are found in only a few foods. Cholesterol is an example of a phospholipid. Cholesterol is found in any animal product. If it comes from an animal and has fat, it is cholesterol. Meat, eggs, dairy, and eggs are all examples of foods that contain cholesterol.

Lipids: Role in the Body and Health Effects

Lipids carry important fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They also provide a sense of fullness and satisfaction since they take longer to digest. There are three types of triglycerides and are important to distinguish because of their health effects. Saturated fatty acids (coconut oil, butter, cheese, whole milk, cream, lard, and beef fat) can cause high cholesterol, heart disease, and atherosclerosis, and contribute to obesity since fat is stored in adipose tissue. But Mono and Poly unsaturated fats such as olive oil, nuts, canola oil, corn, and safflower oils help prevent high cholesterol. Therefore, animal fats are saturated and contribute to high cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, while plant fats are good and help lower the risk of disease. Also, saturated fats are solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. This is an important point when teaching clients about fat in the diet. Essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be consumed in the diet (linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid).

There is one exception to the saturated fat classification, coconut oil. In years past, coconut oil was viewed as an artery clogging fat and placed in the same category as animal fat. When reexamined by experts this medium chain fatty acid is now seen as a heart healthy fat that fights disease. This fat is not stored in the body as adipose tissue, but rather metabolized by the liver immediately and used as energy. For this reason, experts say it speeds up metabolism and promotes weight loss. This beneficial oil is involved in research around the globe for medical conditions such as Alzheimer’s, Diabetes Mellitus Types I and II, Coronary Artery Disease, and numerous skin disorders.

An important point to know about lipids is to be aware of what cholesterol numbers mean. See http://www.cdc.gov/cholesterol/ldl_hdl.htm and review the National Lipid Association recommendations for patient-centered management of dyslipidemia: Part 1 – executive summary http://www.lipidjournal.com/article/S1933-2874(14)00274-8/fulltext#sec1.1

Proteins: Structure and Sources

A protein is also an organic compound that supports tissue growth, repair, and maintenance. Chemically all proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and differ from carbs and lipids in that they contain nitrogen. Proteins contain amino acids. The body will break down food proteins into amino acids and then rebuild the amino acids to build protein for the body, such as in the muscles and blood. Essential amino acids are only obtained from food, the body cannot make them. Non-essential amino acids are made by the body and do not need to be consumed in the diet. Proteins provide 4 Calories/gram for energy.

Food sources of proteins include: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, yogurt, cheese, dried beans and peas, and nuts and nut butters. A small amount of protein can sometimes be found in whole grains and vegetables. Proteins: Role in the Body and Health Effects

Proteins are essential for tissue growth, repair, and maintenance. A diet with the appropriate amount of protein promotes healing in any plan of care. If clients are not consuming enough carbohydrates and lipids, the body will use protein as an energy source. This can lead to problems such as poor healing, ketoacidosis, and muscle damage to include heart, kidneys, and liver. Protein can be used for energy in times of low carb intake and/or starvation. The body will break down protein for essential glucose to provide energy to the brain. Proteins have so many functions it is impossible to discuss them all. Here are the other functions to pay attention to in your readings: enzymes and hormones, maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, building a strong immune system, neurotransmission, and the transport and storage of other nutrients. Also the effects of consuming too much protein is not what you might think given many Americans think high protein diets are essential to weight loss and do not realize the health effects such as high cholesterol, bone loss, and kidney disease.

Note that according to the Institute of Medicine, a balanced diet will consist of between 20 to 35 percent calories from fat, 10 to 35 percent from protein and 45 to 65 percent from carbohydrates. Aim for 30 percent, 20 percent and 50 percent of your calories from fat, protein and carbohydrates, respectively.

Nutrition

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